Study Finds US Households, Especially in Rural Areas, Increasingly Shop at Dollar Stores for Food.

This Medical News article discusses a new study of household food purchasing trends from 2008 to 2020.

Ageing threatens sustainability of smallholder farming in China.

Rapid demographic ageing substantially affects socioeconomic development1-4 and presents considerable challenges for food security and agricultural sustainability5-8, which have so far not been well understood. Here, by using data from more than 15,000 rural households with crops but no livestock across China, we show that rural population ageing reduced farm size by 4% through transferring cropland ownership and land abandonment (approximately 4 million hectares) in 2019, taking the population age structure in 1990 as a benchmark. These changes led to a reduction of agricultural inputs, including chemical fertilizers, manure and machinery, which decreased agricultural output and labour productivity by 5% and 4%, respectively, further lowering farmers' income by 15%. Meanwhile, fertilizer loss increased by 3%, resulting in higher pollutant emissions to the environment. In new farming models, such as cooperative farming, farms tend to be larger and operated by younger farmers, who have a higher average education level, hence improving agricultural management. By encouraging the transition to new farming models, the negative consequences of ageing can be reversed. Agricultural input, farm size and farmer's income would grow by approximately 14%, 20% and 26%, respectively, and fertilizer loss would reduce by 4% in 2100 compared with that in 2020. This suggests that management of rural ageing will contribute to a comprehensive transformation of smallholder farming to sustainable agriculture in China.

Metabolic syndrome in rural Peruvian adults living at high altitudes using different cookstoves.

This study determined the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in open fire stoves and improved cookstoves users (ICS) in the rural Peruvian Andes. Participants answered a socioeconomic questionnaire, one 24-hour food recall and underwent a physical examination. We analysed data from 385 participants, 190 (112 women and 78 men) were ICS users and 195 (123 women and 72 men) were open fire stove users. The prevalence of MetS was 21.3, 26.4% in women and 13.3% in men. We found no statistically significant association between the type of cookstove and MetS. Body mass index and altitude were important determinants of MetS. Research on cardiometabolic diseases and open fire stove use contributes to understanding the effect of household air pollution on health in high altitude populations.

Thiamine deficiency in Gambian women of reproductive age.

Thiamine deficiency disorders are associated with a variety of clinical symptoms affecting the nervous and cardiovascular systems. There is growing recognition that thiamine deficiency can occur in populations well beyond the classical region of South Asia, and at-risk populations include those who receive a large proportion of their energy from polished white rice (or other low-thiamine staple foods) and with low dietary diversity. Reports of thiamine deficiency in West Africa over the last century have suggested that this has historically been an issue in this population, but in more recent decades, these reports have been limited to prison populations. To understand if thiamine deficiency might be an unrecognized problem in the communities of this region, erythrocyte samples collected during the wet and dry seasons from 226 women of reproductive age (mean age = 28 years old) were assessed for thiamine status by measuring the erythrocyte transketolase activity coefficient (ETKac). Overall, 35.8% of the sample was at high risk of thiamine deficiency (ETKac ≥ 1.25). Risk of thiamine deficiency was significantly higher in the wet (47.9%) compared with the dry season (22.9%) (P < 0.001). To our knowledge, this is the first report of biochemical thiamine deficiency in a free-living population in West Africa in the 21st century and suggests that further investigation is warranted.

Características sociodemográficas, de trabalho e saúde de homens e mulheres deficientes residentes em contexto rural / Características sociodemográficas, de trabajo y salud de hombres y mujeres discapacitados residentes en un contexto rural / Sociodemographic characteristics of work and health of disabled men and women living in a rural setting

RESUMO Objetivo: Comparar as características sociodemográficas, de saúde e de trabalho de homens e mulheres com deficiência que residem em contexto rural. Método: Estudo transversal analítico, com 276 pessoas com deficiência residentes em cenário rural de oito municípios da região noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Os dados foram coletados por meio de um questionário fechado, com variáveis sociodemográficas, de trabalho e saúde, aplicado na residência dos participantes nos meses de setembro de 2018 a julho de 2019. Esses foram digitados e analisados no programa estatístico software Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for Windows, versão 18.0 por meio de estatística analítica descritiva (comparação de frequência). Para comparar os dois grupos (homens e mulheres) empregou-se o teste Qui-Quadrado. Resultados: Dos homens, 27,8% apresentaram deficiência física e a deficiência múltipla foi mais frequente na mulher (p<0,001). O trabalho na agricultura e do lar eram mais frequentes no sexo feminino e as atividades autônomas e empregatícias, no sexo masculino. Ambos recebiam BPC, ainda que 18% não tivessem nenhum tipo de benefício. Homens tinham duas vezes mais chance de serem tabagistas e quase três vezes maior risco de etilismo que as mulheres (p<0,001). Conclusão: As características de pessoas com deficiência que residem em contexto rural se diferenciam entre os sexos, no que se refere à deficiência, trabalho e hábitos que vulnerabilizam a saúde.

RESUMEN Objetivo: comparar las características sociodemográficas, de salud y de trabajo de hombres y mujeres con discapacidad que residen en contexto rural. Método: estudio transversal analítico, con 276 personas con discapacidad residentes en escenario rural de ocho municipios de la región noroeste del Estado de Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Los datos fueron recogidos a través de un cuestionario cerrado, con variables sociodemográficas, de trabajo y salud, aplicado en la residencia de los participantes en los meses de septiembre de 2018 a julio de 2019. Estos fueron introducidos y analizados en el programa estadístico software StatisticalPackageforthe Social Sciencesfor Windows, versión 18.0. por medio de estadística analítica descriptiva (comparación de frecuencia). Para comparar los dos grupos (hombres y mujeres) se empleó la Prueba de chi-cuadrado. Resultados: de los hombres, el 27,8% presentó discapacidad física y la discapacidad múltiple fue más frecuente en la mujer (p<0,001). El trabajo en la agricultura y en el hogar eran más frecuentes en el sexo femenino y las actividades autónomas y de empleo, en el sexo masculino. Ambos recibían BPC, aunque el 18% no tenía ningún tipo de beneficio. Los hombres tenían dos veces más probabilidades de ser fumadores y casi tres veces mayor riesgo de etilismo que las mujeres (p<0,001). Conclusión: las características de las personas con discapacidad que residen en un contexto rural se diferencian entre los sexos, en lo que se refiere a la discapacidad, trabajo y hábitos que vulneran la salud.

ABSTRACT Objective: Comparing the sociodemographic characteristics of health and work of men and women with disabilities living in a rural context. Method: A cross-sectional analytical study with 276 people with disabilities living in a rural setting in eight cities in the Northwest Region of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Data were collected through a closed questionnaire with sociodemographic, work and health variables applied at the participants' residence from September 2018 to July 2019. These were typed and analyzed in the software Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for Windows, version 18.0 by means of descriptive analytical statistics (frequency comparison). To compare the two groups (men and women) the Chi-Square test was used. Results: Of the men, 27.8% had physical disabilities and multiple disability was more frequent in women (p<0.001). Work in agriculture and home was more frequent in females and autonomous and employment activities in males. Both received PB, although 18% did not have any kind of benefit. Men were twice as likely to be smokers and almost three times higher risk of alcohol than women (p<0.001). Conclusion: The characteristics of people with disabilities living in a rural setting differ between the genders, with regard to disability, work and habits that make health vulnerable.

Diabetes Care in French Guiana: The Gap Between National Guidelines and Reality.

Introduction: French Guiana is a multicultural overseas territory in the Amazon, where precariousness and difficulties in access to care are widespread. The prevalence of diabetes is double that of other French departments, and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality is high. The objective of the study was to analyze the biological, clinical and therapeutic follow-up of patients with diabetes mellitus using exhaustive data and to correlate it with national and European recommendations. Material and Methods: Using the national health insurance data, 9079 and 10075 patients with diabetes mellitus were analyzed in 2018 and 2019, respectively. We analyzed antidiabetic treatments, medical, dental, and podiatric consultations, examinations prescribed as part of the annual follow-up, and home nursing care. Results: There was a significant increase over one year in the number of patients (+10%) with diabetes, mainly women (60%), and 31% were under 54 years of age, with a disparity depending on the area of the territory, the most isolated having less access to screening. Less than 56% of patients had HbA1c measurements twice a year, less than 43% had an annual renal check-up, only 19% had an ophthalmic check-up at least every two years, less than 25% had an annual dental check-up, and less than 4% had an annual follow-up with the podiatrist. Conclusions: Substandard diabetes monitoring is a major problem likely to increase morbidity and mortality. Adapting health care to the specificities of the territory is crucial, notably by formalizing the delegation of care to advanced practice nurse and non-healthcare professionals in precarious or geographically isolated areas.

Co-existence and interrelationship between intracranial artery stenosis and extracranial carotid atherosclerosis in an asymptomatic rural population of 13 villages in northern China.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the characteristics and relationship of co-existing intracranial artery stenosis (ICAS) and extracranial carotid atherosclerosis in an asymptomatic rural population in northern China. METHODS: Asymptomatic residents ≥ 30 years old in 13 villages underwent simultaneous cervical vascular and transcranial Doppler ultrasound. ICAS was defined as ≥ 50% stenosis. Extracranial carotid atherosclerosis severity was classified as increased intimal medial thickness (IMT), plaques, and a plaque with ≥ 50% extracranial artery stenosis (ECAS). Demographic details, medical history, and blood biochemistry results were collected. The relationship between ICAS and extracranial carotid atherosclerosis severity was determined using the chi-square trend test and binary logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 2598 asymptomatic participants were included; 122 (4.7%) had ICAS, 1071 (41.2%) had extracranial carotid atherosclerosis, and 84 (3.2%) had co-existing extracranial carotid atherosclerosis and ICAS. Those with co-existing ICAS and extracranial carotid atherosclerosis were older (P = 0.006) and had a higher hypertension (HTN) and diabetes mellitus (DM) prevalence (P < 0.001). HTN (95% confidence interval [CI]=1.31-3.55, odds ratio [OR]=2.15) and DM (95% CI=1.17-4.30, OR=2.24) were found to be independent risk factors for asymptomatic ICAS with extracranial carotid atherosclerosis. Among those with ICAS, 38/122 had no extracranial carotid atherosclerosis, 8/122 had increased IMT, 64/122 had a plaque, and 12/122 had ECAS. As extracranial carotid atherosclerosis severity increases, ICAS prevalence increases. CONCLUSION: Co-existing ICAS and extracranial carotid atherosclerosis occurred in 3.2% of asymptomatic populations in rural areas of northern China. As extracranial carotid atherosclerosis severity increased, ICAS prevalence also increased. HTN and DM might be independent indicators of co-existing ICAS and extracranial carotid atherosclerosis.

Urban-rural disparity in cancer mortality and changing trend in Tianjin, China, during 1999 and 2016.

OBJECTIVE: Compare the urban-rural disparity in cancer mortality and changing trend during the past 18 years in Tianjin, China. METHODS: Cancer death data were obtained from Tianjin All Cause of Death Registration System (CDRS), which covers the whole population of Tianjin. We calculated and compared the constituent ratio of cancer deaths, age-standardized mortality rate(ASR)and changing trends between urban and rural areas. RESULTS: From 1999 to 2016, a total of 245,744 cancer deaths were reported, accounting 21.7% of all deaths in Tianjin. The ASR of total cancer mortality was higher in urban areas than in rural areas. A total of 33,739 persons were avoided dying of cancers in rural area compared to the urban death level from 1999 to 2016, which was 40.1% compare to the current level of rural areas. But the gap between urban and rural areas became narrowed gradually. The urban-rural ratios (urban/rural) of total cancer mortality changed from 1.76 (125.7/71.5)[95%CI,1.67,1.84] in 1999 to 1.11 (99.6/90.0)[95%CI,1.06,1.15] in 2016. The ASR of lung, liver and esophagus cancer became higher in rural areas than in urban areas in 2016. CONCLUSION: Cancer transition was obviously occurred in Tianjin and showed different speeds and big gap between urban and rural areas. Much more attention was needed to pay in rural areas which still have increasing trends in most cancers mortality recently.

Changes in the associations of race and rurality with SARS-CoV-2 infection, mortality, and case fatality in the United States from February 2020 to March 2021: A population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: We examined whether key sociodemographic and clinical risk factors for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and mortality changed over time in a population-based cohort study. METHODS AND FINDINGS: In a cohort of 9,127,673 persons enrolled in the United States Veterans Affairs (VA) healthcare system, we evaluated the independent associations of sociodemographic and clinical characteristics with SARS-CoV-2 infection (n = 216,046), SARS-CoV-2-related mortality (n = 10,230), and case fatality at monthly intervals between February 1, 2020 and March 31, 2021. VA enrollees had a mean age of 61 years (SD 17.7) and were predominantly male (90.9%) and White (64.5%), with 14.6% of Black race and 6.3% of Hispanic ethnicity. Black (versus White) race was strongly associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 5.10, [95% CI 4.65 to 5.59], p-value <0.001), mortality (AOR 3.85 [95% CI 3.30 to 4.50], p-value < 0.001), and case fatality (AOR 2.56, 95% CI 2.23 to 2.93, p-value < 0.001) in February to March 2020, but these associations were attenuated and not statistically significant by November 2020 for infection (AOR 1.03 [95% CI 1.00 to 1.07] p-value = 0.05) and mortality (AOR 1.08 [95% CI 0.96 to 1.20], p-value = 0.21) and were reversed for case fatality (AOR 0.86, 95% CI 0.78 to 0.95, p-value = 0.005). American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN versus White) race was associated with higher risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection in April and May 2020; this association declined over time and reversed by March 2021 (AOR 0.66 [95% CI 0.51 to 0.85] p-value = 0.004). Hispanic (versus non-Hispanic) ethnicity was associated with higher risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection and mortality during almost every time period, with no evidence of attenuation over time. Urban (versus rural) residence was associated with higher risk of infection (AOR 2.02, [95% CI 1.83 to 2.22], p-value < 0.001), mortality (AOR 2.48 [95% CI 2.08 to 2.96], p-value < 0.001), and case fatality (AOR 2.24, 95% CI 1.93 to 2.60, p-value < 0.001) in February to April 2020, but these associations attenuated over time and reversed by September 2020 (AOR 0.85, 95% CI 0.81 to 0.89, p-value < 0.001 for infection, AOR 0.72, 95% CI 0.62 to 0.83, p-value < 0.001 for mortality and AOR 0.81, 95% CI 0.71 to 0.93, p-value = 0.006 for case fatality). Throughout the observation period, high comorbidity burden, younger age, and obesity were consistently associated with infection, while high comorbidity burden, older age, and male sex were consistently associated with mortality. Limitations of the study include that changes over time in the associations of some risk factors may be affected by changes in the likelihood of testing for SARS-CoV-2 according to those risk factors; also, study results apply directly to VA enrollees who are predominantly male and have comprehensive healthcare and need to be confirmed in other populations. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we found that strongly positive associations of Black and AI/AN (versus White) race and urban (versus rural) residence with SARS-CoV-2 infection, mortality, and case fatality observed early in the pandemic were ameliorated or reversed by March 2021.

COVID-19 and the impact on rural and black church Congregants: Results of the C-M-C project.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had devastating effects on Black and rural populations with a mortality rate among Blacks three times that of Whites and both rural and Black populations experiencing limited access to COVID-19 resources. The primary purpose of this study was to explore the health, financial, and psychological impact of COVID-19 among rural White Appalachian and Black nonrural central Kentucky church congregants. Secondarily we sought to examine the association between sociodemographics and behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs regarding COVID-19 and intent to vaccinate. We used a cross sectional survey design developed with the constructs of the Health Belief and Theory of Planned Behavior models. The majority of the 942 respondents were ≥36 years. A total of 54% were from central Kentucky, while 47.5% were from Appalachia. Among all participants, the pandemic worsened anxiety and depression and delayed access to medical care. There were no associations between sociodemographics and practicing COVID-19 prevention behaviors. Appalachian region was associated with financial burden and delay in medical care (p = 0.03). Appalachian respondents had lower perceived benefit and attitude for COVID-19 prevention behaviors (p = 0.004 and <0.001, respectively). Among all respondents, the perceived risk of contracting COVID was high (54%), yet 33.2% indicated unlikeliness to receive the COVID-19 vaccine if offered. The COVID-19 pandemic had a differential impact on White rural and Black nonrural populations. Nurses and public health officials should assess knowledge and explore patient's attitudes regarding COVID-19 prevention behaviors, as well as advocate for public health resources to reduce the differential impact of COVID-19 on these at-risk populations.

US trends in mask wearing during the COVID-19 pandemic depend on rurality.

INTRODUCTION: Face masks are widely recommended as a COVID-19 prevention strategy. State mask mandates have generally reduced the spread of the disease, but decisions to wear a mask depend on many factors. Recent increases in case rates in rural areas following initial outbreaks in more densely populated areas highlight the need to focus on prevention and education. Messaging about disease risk has faced challenges in rural areas in the past. While surges in cases within some communities are likely an impetus for behavior change, rising case rates likely explain only part of mask-wearing decisions. The current study examined the relationship between county-level indicators of rurality and mask wearing in the USA. METHODS: National data from the New York Times' COVID-19 cross-sectional mask survey was used to identify the percentage of a county's residents who reported always/frequently wearing a mask (2-14 July 2020). The New York Times' COVID-19 data repository was used to calculate county-level daily case rates for the 2 weeks preceding the mask survey (15 June - 1 July 2020), and defined county rurality using the Index of Relative Rurality (n=3103 counties). Multivariate linear regression was used to predict mask wearing across levels of rurality. The model was adjusted for daily case rates and other relevant county-level confounders, including county-level indicators of age, race/ethnicity, gender, political partisanship, income inequality, and whether each county was subject to a statewide mask mandate. RESULTS: Large clusters of counties with high rurality and low mask wearing were observed in the Midwest, upper Midwest, and mountainous West. Holding daily case rates and other county characteristics constant, the predicted probability of wearing a mask decreased significantly as counties became more rural (β=-0.560; p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: Upticks in COVID-19 cases and deaths in rural areas are expected to continue, and localized outbreaks will likely occur indefinitely. The present findings highlight the need to better understand the mechanisms underlying perceptions of COVID-19 risk in rural areas. Dissemination of scientifically correct and consistent information is critical during national emergencies.

Does Rural Living in Early Life Increase the Risk for Reduced Cognitive Functioning in Later Life?

BACKGROUND: There is a robust consensus, most recently articulated in the 2020 Lancet Commission, that the roots of dementia can be traced to early life, and that the path to prevention may start there as well. Indeed, a growing body of research demonstrates that early life disadvantage may influence the risk for later life dementia and cognitive decline. A still understudied risk, however, is early life rural residence, a plausible pathway given related economic and educational disadvantages, as well as associations between later life rural living and lower levels of cognitive functioning. OBJECTIVE: We aim to examine whether living in rural environments during early life has long term implications for cognitive health in later life. METHODS: We employed the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, which tracked 1 in every 3 high school graduates from the class of 1957, from infancy to ∼age 72. The data include a rich array of prospectively collected early life data, unique among existing studies, as well as later life measures of cognitive functioning. RESULTS: We found a robust relationship between early life rural residence, especially living on a farm, and long-term risk for reduced cognitive performance on recall and fluency tasks. Controls for adolescent cognitive functioning, APOEɛ2 and APOEɛ4, as well as childhood and adult factors, ranging from early life socioeconomic conditions to later life health and rural and farm residency, did not alter the findings. CONCLUSION: Rural living in early life is an independent risk for lower levels of cognitive functioning in later life.

Chronic disease stigma, skepticism of the health system, and socio-economic fragility: Qualitative assessment of factors impacting receptiveness to group medical visits and microfinance for non-communicable disease care in rural Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are the leading cause of mortality in the world, and innovative approaches to NCD care delivery are being actively developed and evaluated. Combining the group-based experience of microfinance and group medical visits is a novel approach to NCD care delivery. However, the contextual factors, facilitators, and barriers impacting wide-scale implementation of these approaches within a low- and middle-income country setting are not well known. METHODS: Two types of qualitative group discussion were conducted: 1) mabaraza (singular, baraza), a traditional East African community gathering used to discuss and exchange information in large group settings; and 2) focus group discussions (FGDs) among rural clinicians, community health workers, microfinance group members, and patients with NCDs. Trained research staff members led the discussions using structured question guides. Content analysis was performed with NVivo using deductive and inductive codes that were then grouped into themes. RESULTS: We conducted 5 mabaraza and 16 FGDs. A total of 205 individuals (113 men and 92 women) participated in the mabaraza, while 162 individuals (57 men and 105 women) participated in the FGDs. In the context of poverty and previous experiences with the health system, participants described challenges to NCD care across three themes: 1) stigma of chronic disease, 2) earned skepticism of the health system, and 3) socio-economic fragility. However, they also outlined windows of opportunity and facilitators of group medical visits and microfinance to address those challenges. DISCUSSION: Our qualitative study revealed actionable factors that could impact the success of implementation of group medical visits and microfinance initiatives for NCD care. While several challenges were highlighted, participants also described opportunities to address and mitigate the impact of these factors. We anticipate that our approach and analysis provides new insights and methodological techniques that will be relevant to other low-resource settings worldwide.

Access to Mechanical Thrombectomy for Ischemic Stroke in the United States.

Background and Purpose: Mechanical thrombectomy helps prevent disability in patients with acute ischemic stroke involving occlusion of a large cerebral vessel. Thrombectomy requires procedural expertise and not all hospitals have the staff to perform this intervention. Few population-wide data exist regarding access to mechanical thrombectomy. Methods: We examined access to thrombectomy for ischemic stroke using discharge data from calendar years 2016 to 2018 from all nonfederal emergency departments and acute care hospitals across 11 US states encompassing 80 million residents. Facilities were classified as hubs if they performed mechanical thrombectomy, gateways if they transferred patients who ultimately underwent mechanical thrombectomy, and gaps otherwise. We used standard descriptive statistics and unadjusted logistic regression models in our primary analyses. Results: Among 205 681 patients with ischemic stroke, 100 139 (48.7% [95% CI, 48.5%­48.9%]) initially received care at a thrombectomy hub, 72 534 (35.3% [95% CI, 35.1%­35.5%]) at a thrombectomy gateway, and 33 008 (16.0% [95% CI, 15.9%­16.2%]) at a thrombectomy gap. Patients who initially received care at thrombectomy gateways were substantially less likely to ultimately undergo thrombectomy than patients who initially received care at thrombectomy hubs (odds ratio, 0.27 [95% CI, 0.25­0.28]). Rural patients had particularly limited access: 27.7% (95% CI, 26.9%­28.6%) of such patients initially received care at hubs versus 69.5% (95% CI, 69.1%­69.9%) of urban patients. For 93.8% (95% CI, 93.6%­94.0%) of patients with stroke at gateways, their initial facility was capable of delivering intravenous thrombolysis, compared with 76.3% (95% CI, 75.8%­76.7%) of patients at gaps. Our findings were unchanged in models adjusted for demographics and comorbidities and persisted across multiple sensitivity analyses, including analyses adjusting for estimated stroke severity. Conclusions: We found that a substantial proportion of patients with ischemic stroke across the United States lacked access to thrombectomy even after accounting for interhospital transfers. US systems of stroke care require further development to optimize thrombectomy access.

Analyzing the farmers' pro-environmental behavior intention and their rural tourism livelihood in tourist village where its ecological environment is polluted.

This study examines farmers' intentions towards pro-environmental behavior in a famous tourist village in China called Guanshan, whose ecological environment is polluted. By adopting the empirically validated norm activation model (NAM) of Schwartz and merging it with Vroom's expectancy theory, the current research aims to develop a refined framework for understanding the formation of and predicting changes in pro-environmental intention. Field surveys were conducted in Guanshan, which resulted in sample data consisting of 275 valid responses collected by the research team. We develop a refined model, including six latent variables and 24 observational items. The structural equation modeling results show that the final model enjoys a better predictive accuracy of pro-environmental intention than does the original NAM. The study also discovers that the motivational force of expectancy theory significantly influences pro-environmental intention, whose motivational force comes from the impact of valence and expectancy. The pro-environmental intentions of farmers are mainly affected by the environmental personal norm and by a certain degree of personal expectancy. The improvement of farmers' pro-environmental intention needs be promoted in two approaches: the cultivation of personal environmental protection norms and the guidance of producing a desired expectation for pro-environmental intention.